ANB-BIA SUPPLEMENT

This article should have appeared in our January «Special Issue». 
However, it arrived a little late! We are now pleased to be able to publish it

Tunisia is a small country (approximately 10 million inhabitants in 2000) with an intermediate-level average income ($2,100 per head of population in 2000) and an average level of development. It is often considered as a «pre-emergent» country, with average growth in real terms of about 4.1% over the last twenty years.(1) At the beginning of the 1980s, it also began a demographic transitional stage, hence the considerable fall in population (3.2% by the mid-80s and 1.3% in 2000).

Human development

With a Human Development Index (HDI) of 0.722 in 2000, Tunisia occupies a middle place in the list: 97th out of 173 countries. Its score is the global average, and in comparative terms it has an average of at least that of other developing countries. Over the last two decades, 1980-2000, Tunisia has enjoyed considerable progress in terms of human development: its HDI has risen from 0.566 in 1980 to 0.722 in 2000, an improvement of almost one and a half points. Life expectancy is now 70.2 years, higher than the world average (66.9 years) and that of the other developing countries (64.7 years). Really significant progress has been made in terms of health.

Conversely, adult literacy (15 years and older), Tunisia’s score is an unsatisfactory 71% (an illiteracy rate of 29%). Despite a national programme for combating illiteracy, this last scourge continues to burden and inhibit progress in terms of human development.

As regards provision of education (at all levels), Tunisia has an overall rate of 74%, significantly higher than the world average (65%) and that of countries with an average level of human development (67%). The country also has good performance figures, reflecting the constant concern of public authorities in this area since independence.

Despite the steep downward trend in the mid-80s and the consequent structural adjustment, economic growth was maintained as a year on year average at around 4.1%. With an average demographic growth rate of 2% between 1980 and 2000, the average standard of living (measured by GDP per head of population) rose at an average rate of 2.1%.

However, when looking at purchasing power parity in 2000, the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of $6,363 per head of population puts Tunisia in 71st position, while for the HDI, as we have already seen, it was 97th, a shift of 26 places (one of the highest in the world). 

This reflects a lack of efficiency, that is, in translating economic growth to corresponding progress in human development.

Finally, within the Arab region, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (1st Report on Human Development in the Arab world, 2002), changed the HDI, adding 3 important components: A freedom indicator (adjusted by Freedom House); an Indicator of the Participation of Women (IPW, since 1997); and an indicator reflecting Internet connection figures.

It should be noted here for Tunisia that, on a scale of between 0 to 1, the freedom indicator was 0.18 in 1998 (one of the lowest in the world) and for the IPW, Tunisia has a fairly low score of 0.25.

Finally, for computers connected to the Internet, the number for every 1000 inhabitants in 1998 was almost negligible. These poor performance figures (widespread throughout the Arab world) focus attention on these 3 major challenges (democracy, sexual equality and active participation in the global system of New Technologies for Information and Communication (NTIC).

Changes to poverty levels

Over the last two decades, Tunisia has devoted sustained efforts to reducing poverty, with tangible results. Despite the methodological biases that affect INS estimates(2), at a national level, the percentage of the total population living in hardship (poverty rate) has been continually falling: 12.9% in 1980, 4.2% in 2000. Over the same period, the number of people living in hardship has fallen by more than half, from 823,000 to 399,000 between 1980 and 2000. In geographical terms, the reduction in poverty has been greatly to the benefit of the rural areas, where the poverty level has fallen from 14.1% (1980) to 2.9% (2000), an 11.2 point improvement, whereas in the urban areas, the improvement was only 6.8 points. Besides, poverty was harsher in rural areas, until the trend was reversed in 1982. This «urbanisation» of poverty was partly due to the rapid increase in the number of people living in towns. In the urban areas, there has even been an increase in the number of poor people for the period 1985-1995.

The typical profile for a poor person, taken from census figures, and surveys of household budgets, is as follows:

• Living in an urban environment (poverty affects 5% of the urban population compared to 2.9% in rural areas) in the north-west, central-west and south-west regions;
• Unemployed, or from a family where the head of the household is unemployed;(3)
• Belonging to a household of more than 7 people;
• Living in a very rudimentary dwelling or shack.

Closer study allows this profile to be fleshed out. The individual will be more or less illiterate, without access to drinking water or health care, normally female, and working in informal sectors(4).

Human poverty

Since destitution is not simply a monetary issue, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), in its report on human development of 1997, introduced the concept of human poverty that tried to see poverty as a lack (deprivation) of what is essential, not just to the individual’s survival, but to a decent life and to achievement of its full potential. The Human Poverty Indicator (HPI) therefore, includes longevity, knowledge and the conditions for a decent life in its considerations, and is intended to cast light on the socio-human aspects of poverty. According to the UNDP, in 1998, 21.9% of the Tunisian population were suffering from poverty.

Using the same methodology as that of the UNPD(5), we have put together a regional HPI for 2000, the purpose of which is to highlight regional differences in terms of human poverty. At a national level, the HPI is 21.1%. Illiteracy (28.11%) is the primary determining factor in human poverty, particularly for two regions, the centre-west (43.6%) and the north east (38.6%), which recorded the highest scores. Similarly, the high probability of dying before the age of 40 is an important factor in setting the level of the HPI (17.89%), involving mainly the areas in the interior of the country, south-west (22.3%) and centre-west (23.6%). Similarly, the lack of a drinking water supply and health service infrastructures particularly affects the poorest regions, thus aggravating their situation (centre-west and north-west).

Programmes for combating poverty

The improvement in living conditions and alleviation of poverty has always been a central concern of the public authorities in Tunisia. The state allocates more than half its budget to social sectors.

Public expenditure on education and training, social intervention, support for farmers and the rural community, public health and social security continues to be around one fifth of the GDP, and has not been altered by problems with economic trends or structural adjustment programmes. Several programmes and a range of organisations are involved in the fight against poverty. These programmes may be divided into four categories:

1. Programmes of aid and social support are generally initiated by the Ministry for Social Affairs and the Tunisian Union for Social Solidarity. Several programmes have been initiated, either permanent or temporary, according to the population groups or social categories concerned who may include needy families, children of needy families and the disabled as well as needy old people. The national programme for help for needy families, assisting 114,000 families, is the principle permanent aid programme presently established in Tunisia (generally 1 dinar per day per family).

2. The employment support and income creation programme consists of several devices and mechanisms for bringing young people into the professions and promoting micro-projects for creating income. The main programmes include:(6)

• The National Solidarity Fund, more generally known as «26-26 Fund» formed in December 1992, which covers the shadowy areas of the sub-delegations (sub-divisions of sub-prefectures), those most withdrawn and isolated. Between 1993 and 2000, almost half a billion Tunisian dinars (1 euro=1.3 dinars) were spend in 1150 locations (electrification, drinking water, country roads taking up ¾ of the expenditure).
• In addition, in 1998 the Tunisian Solidarity Bank was set up, whose aim is to provide grants of micro-credit to small business people in the informal sector (an average of 3 to 4000 Tunisian dinars).
• Even more recently, at the end of December 1999, the National Fund for 21-21 Employment was created, to support in creation of micro-projects (self-employment) and assisting in entry to professional life particularly for those with higher education qualifications (the unemployment rate for those holding higher education qualifications is rising significantly).

3. Programmes for improving living conditions and standard of living have two essential components: promoting public housing schemes and improving the standard of living in poorer areas.

4. Social defence and integration programmes form part of a strategy with two major aims: prevention of early departure from education, problems with education and psychosocial maladjustment of students, prevention of juvenile delinquency and inclusion of young people. There are presently several social defence and integration centres active in Tunisia. The people targeted by these centres consist of children and young adults threatened by delinquency and by failure and leaving school early, as well as all the other forms of psychosocial dysfunction in the school and family environment.

Finally, over the last two decades, Tunisia has experienced significant economic progress and clear improvements in terms of human development. However the rate of growth is still less (6% to 7%) than that required to meet employment needs. In addition, improvements in efficiency (better translation of economic growth into human development) would be necessary. Finally, challenges to of democracy, equality of the sexes in terms of political, economic and administrative issues, and inclusion in the globalised system of NTICs are on the agenda for human development.

As regards financial hardship in its most acute form, it is undeniable that this has been significantly reduced in Tunisia and that it must be among the lowest in the developing countries. Continuous social interventionism on the part of the public authorities, through a wide range of programmes has certainly contributed to these results, even if there are still problems to be faced as regards targeting and efficiency.

In addition, the intractability of unemployment, and the uncertain nature of employment (extending the informal sector) continue to affect a significant proportion of the population. Human poverty is still comparatively widespread in Tunisia (more than a quarter of the population) particular in the interior (north-west, centre-west) where illiteracy and the difficulty or impossibility of accessing basic health services and drinking water continue to cause great concern.

 

• Azzam Mahjoub, Professor of Economics at the University of Tunis, December 2002 Reproduction authorised, with usual acknowledgment

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NOTES - 1. 3.3% for the period 1980-1990 and 4.9% for the period 1990-2000 (World Bank). – 2. The INS estimates the level of poverty based on the poverty threshold that represents the cost of a basket of food and non-food items essential for life. The food basket is designed to meet the nutritional needs of an adult, estimated in 1980 at 1866 Kcal (urban) and 1830Kcal (rural). Its cost is based on 1980 prices and adjusted yearly as a function of the price variation. The INS sets the rural poverty threshold, in the first place, at 50% of that of the urban environment. These thresholds are 120D for the urban milieu and 60D for the rural in 1980 and 418D for the urban and 209D for the rural environment in 2000 per person and per year. De facto, INS overestimates urban poverty with respect to rural poverty. – 3. The unemployment rate in Tunisia is estimated at around 15-16%. – 4. The informal sector makes a significant contribution to non-agricultural employment. According to INS, its contribution has increased from 38.4% in 1975-1979 to 48.7% in 1995-1999. Women will form 18.1% of the informal sector. – 5. The HPI components for developing countries are: a) the likelihood of dying before 40 (longevity); b) the illiteracy rate in adults (teaching) and three indicators of a decent lifestyle; c) population without access to drinking water; d) population without access to health services; and e) underweight children up to the age of 5. In our regional HPI calculations, these components were adjusted according to the data available. – 6. The other main programmes are: the PRD (Rural Development Programme); the PDUI (Integrated Urban Development Programme); the PDRI (Integrated Rural Development Programme); national and regional worksites and the Programme of National Development Work Sites; Employment facilitation fund; National Fund for Promotion of Handicrafts and Small Businesses (FONAPRA).